Results:Quality in healthcare is a production of cooperation between the patient and the healthcare provider in a supportive environment. Personal factors of the provider and the patient, and factors pertaining to the healthcare organisation, healthcare system, and the broader environment affect healthcare service quality. Healthcare quality can be improved by supportive visionary leadership, proper planning, education and training, availability of resources, effective management of resources, employees and processes, and collaboration and cooperation among providers.
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The findings suggest that healthcare quality can be improved by supportive leadership, proper planning, education and training, and effective management of resources, employees, and processes. If policy-makers and managers intend to improve healthcare services quality, they should apply techniques and tools to operationalise these quality management constructs. However, there are some obstacles that prevent the successful introduction of quality management models. Some of these organisational morbidities are explained below.
Centralization, bureaucracy, and severe dependency on government with a strong hierarchical structure are important barriers to effective quality management in the Iranian healthcare system. Almost all decisions regarding the structures, general goals, policies, and even resource allocation are made at the central level by the MoHME. Managers in public healthcare organisations do not have autonomy to make and implement strategic decisions. An effective quality management system requires more autonomy for operational managers in the decision-making processes. The MoHME determines health policies, delivers, and evaluates healthcare services. While the ministry of health participates in developing standards and policies, an accreditation council comprising representatives from government regulatory agencies, professional organisations, practitioners, and the public should be created to govern the accreditation programme. Quality management principles should be incorporated into healthcare evaluation and accreditation standards.
It is very difficult to sustain the benefits of a quality management system in Iranian healthcare organisations while they are suffering from these organisational diseases. Managers and policy-makers must invest in the following five capitals (see Figure 2) to overcome the above-mentioned obstacles and facilitate the implementation of quality management (52).
Physical capital refers to any non-human asset used in the production of products and services. Quality is not free. High-quality resources are needed to provide high-quality services. Healthcare organisations should provide their staff with the resources and support they need to deliver high-quality services (52). In 2010, Iran spent 5.3% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or 302 US dollars per capita on health versus 3,495 US dollars in the UK, and 8,233 US dollars in the USA (4). A much higher percentage of the national GDP should be allocated to the healthcare system to improve healthcare services quality. The organisational structure in Iranian healthcare organisations should be changed to support quality improvement activities. The new quality structure should be supported by adequate staff, facilities, and resources. A clinical governance system should be established for defining clinical standards and monitoring performance against standards (53). Using a quality-oriented information system helps in studying the processes and identifying and then prioritising quality problems.
Successful quality management implementation requires a significant change in mindsets, attitudes, and beliefs of individuals with regard to quality. Teamwork and collaboration should be fostered. Good communication, cooperation, and collaboration among healthcare providers support providing effective and efficient healthcare services, and promote shared responsibility for patient care. In Iranian healthcare, decision-making is centralized, the workforce is not empowered and there is a lack of trust amongst managers and employees. Mistakes bring blame seeking and dismissal and teamwork is thought to be unnecessary. Changing established behaviour and practices of an organisation is not easy (56). Education of the next generation in schools and universities on participation and teamwork concepts and skills, continuous improvement, and customer focus by the national TV or radio, ISIRI, etc. could be helpful. The increasing complexity of healthcare services, treatment options and care pathways requires a more knowledgeable and participative customer to achieve the most satisfactory outcomes. More active informed customer involvement reduces inappropriate use of healthcare services and errors and improves the quality of services through constructive criticism. However, customers lack knowledge about their rights in Iranian healthcare organisations (57,58). The media and education system must play an active role in increasing public knowledge about healthcare services. Customer advocate institutions like the National Council for Quality Healthcare and the patients association should be established at the national level to make sure healthcare organisations are accountable enough in providing high-quality services. Healthcare organisations should also establish a patient relations department to provide patient advice and liaison service.
Total quality management (TQM) consists of organization-wide efforts to "install and make permanent climate where employees continuously improve their ability to provide on demand products and services that customers will find of particular value."[1] "Total" emphasizes that departments in addition to production (for example sales and marketing, accounting and finance, engineering and design) are obligated to improve their operations; "management" emphasizes that executives are obligated to actively manage quality through funding, training, staffing, and goal setting. While there is no widely agreed-upon approach, TQM efforts typically draw heavily on the previously developed tools and techniques of quality control. TQM enjoyed widespread attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s before being overshadowed by ISO 9000, Lean manufacturing, and Six Sigma.
The exact origin of the term "total quality management" is uncertain.[2] It is almost certainly inspired by Armand V. Feigenbaum's multi-edition book Total Quality Control (.mw-parser-output cite.citationfont-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word.mw-parser-output .citation qquotes:"\"""\"""'""'".mw-parser-output .citation:targetbackground-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133).mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon abackground:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat.mw-parser-output .cs1-codecolor:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-errordisplay:none;color:#d33.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-errorcolor:#d33.mw-parser-output .cs1-maintdisplay:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em.mw-parser-output .cs1-formatfont-size:95%.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-leftpadding-left:0.2em.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-rightpadding-right:0.2em.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflinkfont-weight:inheritOCLC 299383303) and Kaoru Ishikawa's What Is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way (OCLC 11467749). It may have been first coined in the United Kingdom by the Department of Trade and Industry during its 1983 "National Quality Campaign".[2] Or it may have been first coined in the United States by the Naval Air Systems Command to describe its quality-improvement efforts in 1985.[2]
The US Environmental Protection Agency's Underground Storage Tanks program, which was established in 1985, also employed Total Quality Management to develop its management style.[8] The private sector followed suit, flocking to TQM principles not only as a means to recapture market share from the Japanese, but also to remain competitive when bidding for contracts from the Federal Government[9] since "total quality" requires involving suppliers, not just employees, in process improvement efforts.
"Total Quality Management (TQM) in the Department of Defense is a strategy for continuously improving performance at every level, and in all areas of responsibility. It combines fundamental management techniques, existing improvement efforts, and specialized technical tools under a disciplined structure focused on continuously improving all processes. Improved performance is directed at satisfying such broad goals as cost, quality, schedule, and mission need and suitability. Increasing user satisfaction is the overriding objective. The TQM effort builds on the pioneering work of Dr. W. E. Deming, Dr. J. M. Juran, and others, and benefits from both private and public sector experience with continuous process improvement."[14]
"A management approach of an organisation centred on quality, based on the participation of all its members and aiming at long term success through customer satisfaction and benefits to all members of the organisation and society."[16]
"A term first used to describe a management approach to quality improvement. Since then, TQM has taken on many meanings. Simply put, it is a management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. TQM is based on all members of an organization participating in improving processes, products, services and the culture in which they work. The methods for implementing this approach are found in the teachings of such quality leaders as Philip B. Crosby, W. Edwards Deming, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Kaoru Ishikawa and Joseph M. Juran."[17] 2ff7e9595c
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